University of Connecticut professor Charlie Yarish, also known as ‘Capt. Seaweed,’ is a leader in the emerging U.S. sea vegetable farming industry. (
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In Chwaka Bay, aquaculture (the farming of aquatic organisms) is represented by a small-scale but much debated activity; farming of marine macroalgae, or seaweed farming. Aquaculture as a whole dates back several millennia in areas like South-East Asia, but has during the last decades become heavily promoted as an alternative livelihood in developing countries to (i) reduce pressure on overharvested natural resources (e.g. fish stocks) and (ii) supply cheap food and income (Tacon 2001). Many promises of this “Blue Revolution” have, however, not been fulfilled, because technical know-how and experience is often lacking (Dadzie 1992; Machena and Moehl 2001), and because some of the hitherto dominating forms (for example farming of giant shrimp/prawns) have been riddled with huge sustainability problems of their own (Deb 1998; Bryceson 2002).
Seaweed farming is, in comparison to e.g. intensive shrimp farming, an alternative form of aquaculture, which has been described as “the most sustainable” form of aquaculture. This is primarily because (i) farming can be conducted in shallow coastal areas or the open ocean (instead of in dugout ponds), (ii) the seaweeds require no addition of fertilizers or pesticides, only enough light and water mo- tion, (iii) the rapid growth rate (up to 15 percent per day) results in relatively short farming cycles (Mshigeni 1976; FAO 2002), and (iv) farming generates a cash income to farmers. Most open-water seaweed farming involves two genera of tropical red algae (Rhodophyta); Eucheuma and Kappaphycus (Zemke-White and Ohno 1999), farmed for the extraction of carrageenan; a valuable polysaccharide used as a stabilizing, emulsifying and thickening agent in food, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
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Why seaweed farming is of interest in Alaska
Although the people of Alaska have been using seaweed as a food staple for centuries,seaweed farming is only recently attracting interest in the state. Globally, demand forseaweed has soared over the past 50 years, far outstripping wild supply, according to theUnited Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Mariculture (the ocean farming offood) produces more than 96 percent of the world’s supply of seaweed products, currentlyvalued at $4-5 billion. Alaskans are starting to pay attention.Alaska’s potential for cultivation of kelp and other seaweeds is high, given its vast naturalmarine habitat with pristine water quality. Kelp, a large brown, cold-water seaweed, isthe primary focus. Seaweed culture is a logical business addition to established shellfishfarms since most utilize floating raft culture and are located on sites favorable to seaweedcultivation. Since the growth cycle of seaweed is fall to spring, it is compatible with otherseasonal occupations such as summer fisheries.Seaweeds contain important nutrients such as protein, vitamins, minerals, traceelements, and enzymes. Growing awareness of the medical benefits that seaweedprovides is boosting demand for seaweed-derived snacks and other creative uses infood products for human consumption. Increasing demand for seaweeds in the food,pharmaceutical, and animal feed industries will likely expand markets in years to come
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Marine macroalgae or seaweeds are the major components of the marine flora and are used as food, feed and fertilizer. Applications of seaweed extracts (SEs) from certain algae have the potential to improve plant growth and yield. The richness of polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, peptides, proteins and phytohormones in various SEs, favor the deployment of SEs as bio-elicitors for disease tolerance in plants. The SEs from some algae regulate the physiological, biochemical and molecular mechanisms of the plants to enhance defence against pathogens. The SEs also modulate the rhizosphere microbial composition, which contributes to regulation of plant defence responses. The regulation of salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA)-signaling pathways, reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis and defence-related genes/enzymes by applications of SEs play a major role in the molecular regulation of defence response. This review focuses on the bioactive molecules of various SEs, functional mechanism of bio-elicitors, phytohormones, and molecular regulation towards disease tolerance in plants.
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Introduction
Background
The Scottish Government (SG) is fully supportive of the sustainable growth of aquaculture, with due regard to the wider marine environment. The sector underpins the sustainable economic growth that supports both employment and the economic wellbeing of many fragile rural communities across Scotland. This includes the support and development of traditional aquaculture sectors, as well as possible diversification into other species, such as seaweed cultivation.
This policy statement covers:
- Commercial seaweed cultivation development size
- Integrated Multi Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) development
Policy summary and purpose
This policy statement aims to help facilitate the growth of the sector by setting out SG policy on the suitability of seaweed cultivation in different scenarios. This will provide those wanting to operate in this sector with a better understanding of the type of development that may be given approval. The overall benefit will be to provide greater certainty for the industry, while ensuring that activities which may have an environmental impact are understood and mitigated.
Scotland’s National Marine Plan (NMP)
Scotland’s NMP was adopted on 25 March 2015 and published and laid before Scottish Parliament on 27 March 2015. All authorisation and enforcement decisions by a public authority must be taken in accordance with the Plan, as must any other decisions which are capable of affecting the marine area. The application of the General Policies within Chapter 4 of the Plan will be particularly relevant in relation to seaweed issues. http://www.gov.scot/Topics/marine/seamanagement/national
Policy development
The Seaweed Cultivation Policy Statement (SCPS) has been informed through consultation in 2013 with various public bodies with an interest in seaweed cultivation and harvesting, including the Food Standards Agency in Scotland, the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA), Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH), Historic Scotland (HS), and The Crown Estate. A consultation report www.scotland.gov.uk/publications/2014/11/5316 and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Environmental Report www.gov.scot/publications/2013/08/6786/0 were also completed.
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Seaweed has been coined the ultimate sustainable crop for a green transition. The European Union considers seaweed an important tool for mitigating CO2 emissions and making EU self-sufficient in proteins for feed purposes, but cultivation is still nascent outside South-East Asia. This paper studies seaweed cultivation in the Faroe Islands, which could provide the EU with large amounts of macroalgae due to promising geobiophysical conditions, and asks whether seaweed cultivation is beneficial for the Faroe Islands too. According to staples theory, this depends on whether resource-extracting industries are embedded in society through forward linkages (local processing) and fiscal linkages (tools for rent collection). The analysis suggests the potential for developing forward and fiscal linkages is negligible. Thus, if expansion challenges are successfully addressed, the findings serve as an early warning for policy makers: they must consider ways to circumvent market volatility if seaweed cultivation is to benefit the Faroese society.
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ALGAE > Volume 35(2); 2020 > Article 
Mariculture is regarded as the only option to supply the increasing demands for seaweeds as human food, feeds, fodder, and phycolloids in a sustainable manner. Technologies for culturing a range of seaweed species have been developed successively in Korea since the 1970s. In 2017, Korean marine farms produced 1,761,526 t of seaweed. The key focus of the industry is on the production of Pyropia (523,648 t), Undaria (622,613 t), and Saccharina (542,285 t). Pyropia is economically the most important species in Korea, accounting for up to 68% of total production value. As the top exporter of Pyropia in the world, Korea exported up to US $525 million of Pyropia products to 110 countries in 2018. Other economically important genera include Sargassum, Ulva, Capsosiphon, Codium, and Gracilariopsis, all of which are used for food, and Gelidium, Pachymeniopsis, and Ecklonia which are used as raw material for phycocolloid extraction. Significant work has gone into developing more productive strains of key seaweed species, and in 2012 the Korean government began to certify seaweed varieties. To date, 19 seaweed cultivars have been registered including 13 Pyropia, 5 Undaria, and 1 Saccharina. The industry is now seeking not only to increase productivity but also to add value through processing. Convenience foods and snacks have been developed that target health-conscious consumers and utilize the nutritional properties of seaweeds. The industry is also seeking to promote the sustainability of seaweed farming. One seaweed company in Korea obtained the world’s first ASC-MSC (Aquaculture Stewardship Council-Marine Stewardship Council) certification in 2019 and more are expected to follow their lead. With continued research support, the Korean seaweed industry plans to continue to expand to meet new market demands at a sustainable pace.
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- Seaweed could hold the key to cutting methane emissions from cow burps
- From Canada to the world
- Fighting climate change, feeding people
- Where can we grow all the seaweed?
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Seaweeds or marine macro algae are primitive non-flowering plants without true root, stem and leaves. They form one of the commercially important marine living renewable resources. They are the only source for the production of phytochemicals such as agar, carrageenan and algin. Seaweeds occur in the intertidal, shallow and deep waters of the sea upto 180m depth and also in estuaries and backwaters. They grow on rocks, dead corals, stones, pebbles, solid substrata and on other plants.
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Macroalgae (aka seaweed) - the quintessential ocean crop
- ~15,000 different species growing in a wide range of geographies
- Fast growth rate
- Mostly carbohydrate & protein
- Amenable to cultivation & harvest
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